Scientists recently completed the 10-year Genome Project to catalog every letter and sequence in DNA’s genetic code, leading to new understandings about how genetic code functions.
Recent discoveries indicate that genetic code comprises two programs, each stored on DNA video tapes that can be read by a DNA wave bio-computer.
The chromosome apparatus
As many of us may already know, chromosomes are long double-stranded DNA molecules that contain our genetic information in every cell in our bodies. When they replicate, each strand duplicates to become an exact copy of its predecessor; however, this process leaves two strands mechanically connected at their centromere region, so if they need to be separated and distributed evenly between two new cells this link must be broken first.
Partitioning (par) proteins play a crucial role in this process. They have been discovered in both bacteria and eukaryotes and interact with specific sites on chromosomes – known in bacteria as par loci and in eukaryotes as centromeres – to separate them.
When dividing a chromosome, partitioning proteins work to break its arms down into equal portions before distributing them to opposite poles of its predivisional cell. Later, they will be brought back together again by spindle apparatus for bipolar mitosis that leads to daughter cells being formed from each divisional division of a chromosome.
Segregation of chromosomes relies upon partitioning proteins’ ability to release tension between two strands, allowing them to separate. This is accomplished via chemical reactions involving phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of substrates. Furthermore, partitioning proteins must recognize specific sites on each of the chromosomes known as centromeres, aligning themselves accordingly and realign with them in an orderly fashion.
Most people envision chromosomes as looking similar to an X, with its arms widening at one end and narrowing at the other. It may be more challenging for some people to visualise the centromere because this part of the chromosome only covers approximately 1000 base pairs long.
The chromosome hologram
Digital Holography can be used to record light wave interference patterns on an optically trapped sample and visualize and analyze its chromosomal DNA structure in individual cells. Holographic images created can provide super-resolution of structures 100 nanometers wide in two dimensions. Furthermore, these holograms can be deconvolved and interpreted using computational simulations of optical diffraction – opening up new imaging techniques for life science applications.
This method employs functional holographic analysis to extract relevant information from matrices of normalized gene correlations. To begin this analysis, first evaluate your matrix of normalized correlations and then use PCA dimension reduction algorithm on it. As a result of these procedures, meaningful information regarding biological function of each gene can be extracted via its correlation network; for instance yjlC gene has high correlations with purA gene and all genes from purE operon while having lower correlations with purR and xpt operons respectively.
Next, holographic networks were utilized to find an optimal nano-mirror arrangement and reconstruct a chromosome cell image using it. A phase energy map was also generated for comparison purposes with original images; additionally, these reconstructed cell images were processed through an improved angular spectrum method algorithm with impressive results showing more accurate reconstruction chromosome cell images than other algorithms.
Holographic imaging of the chromosome can help doctors to quickly and accurately identify abnormal cells on chromosomes – providing hope for more accurate and timely diagnosis of serious illnesses. This technique shows great promise in disease diagnosis. Researchers also use it to examine cytoplasmic lesions found in living cells that contribute to human diseases, while being able to detect live chromosomal cells in clinical settings will aid with improving patient outcomes and treating disease more effectively. Holograms can also be used to locate the location of chromosomes within cells, providing opportunities for more effective drug discovery and treatment of cancer and other diseases. They may even be used to test out new therapies.
The chromosome phantom effect
The Chromosome Phantom Effect (CPE) is a phenomenological effect describing the tendency for certain physical constraints to cause reconfigurations to a model set of chromosomes. This phenomenon arises due to DNA and chromosomes being mechanical structures with microscopic scale mechanical forces like those experienced by steel and stone bridges, including attraction, repulsion, vibration resonance breakage fusion.
These forces and phenomena are subject to the same physical laws that govern any other physical phenomenon, making it reasonable to expect they may share similar causes and effects. Therefore, it should come as no surprise that such forces could serve as useful tools in studying DNA and chromosomes as tools that could offer insights into their functions.
Researchers have discovered that even one point of charge in a DNA chain exerts an electric field at some distance (r) away, proportional to its square root of inverse of total distance from this point to each of its neighbors. This significant force could be utilized in many ways to control DNA structure, including creating artificial chromosomes or restructuring existing ones.
Since 2008, various experimental data analysis and genomic structural modelling techniques have been employed with the goal of understanding how best to exploit the chromosome phantom effect for improved genome assembly. In particular, Hi-C data and other experimental constraints were utilized to generate coarse-grained models of chromosomes which can then be compared with experimental contact data to measure contact propensities between these coarse-grained models and experimental contacts; additionally, their reconfigurability can then be assessed against initial decondensed state configurations that simulate mitotic configurations; etc.
These results demonstrate that chromosomes assemble into hierarchically structured domains correlated to specific sites within the genome, supporting the idea that macrodomains of chromatin structure may be organized through local and nonlocal constraints imposed during DNA reconfiguration processes.
The chromosome biocomputer
Researchers are employing the phenomenon of the wave genome to create an atomic-scale computer that could store and transmit vast amounts of information. It uses chromosomes to store genetic data while lasers read it – much faster than existing computers – while also being more energy efficient than existing solutions due to no need to cool down its chromosomes as often. Furthermore, multiple computing processes may run simultaneously on this atomic computer for enhanced energy savings.
The chromosome is an intricate biomolecule containing genetic and general regulatory information. Additionally, it acts as a resonant transmitter of electromagnetic fields nonlocally between chromosomes. The chromosome biocomputer takes advantage of this property to improve regenerative medicine while its applications also extend into long-distance telecom networks as it transmits data securely across long distances without loss.
Many computational methods have been developed to enable researchers to quickly and accurately estimate the 3D structure of chromosomes from Hi-C maps. These methods estimate pairwise spatial distances between genomic loci by analyzing their frequency of contact, then use this information to build models of their physical and geometrical structure.
However, these models can only provide approximate predictions of chromosome geometry; due to long segments of complementary DNA that occupy half-way between genomic loci. Therefore, to accurately calculate spatial distances between genomic loci, one must take into account that some DNA segments overlap themselves.
The chromosome biocomputer utilizes the polarization state of DNA laser photons to communicate genetic information between cells. This data can be encoded as binary code or stored in memory locations similar to what a computer would provide.
The chromosome biocomputer can serve many uses, from protecting plants against x-ray damage and detecting cancer mutations to reconstructing gene networks and identifying their respective disease-causing genes, and even creating quantum biocomputers using DNA’s quantum holographic properties.