CRISPR gene editing technology is revolutionizing bioscience, but has led some individuals to break existing safety regulations in pursuit of self-improvement.
DIY kits allow individuals to experiment with their genes and solve scientific problems that have confounded professionals, such as creating bacteria that glow or yeast that thrive in hostile environments. Josiah Zayner is one such biohacker; he performed an unproven gene therapy procedure on himself to lengthen his telomeres livestreamed while live streaming the procedure.
CRISPR-Cas9
CRISPR-Cas9 is the newest, fastest and cheapest genome editing technology on the market. Originally used by bacteria to fight viruses, during an attack CRISPR-Cas9 strips off pieces of viral DNA to store as “memory.” Once infected again it uses Cas proteins to cut it away before cutting away other pieces as needed to disable any further attacks by cutting virus DNA directly – thus making editing much faster and cheaper!
Scientists have modified nature’s system so it works in plants, mice and human cells. Cas9, the DNA-cutting protein is guided to specific locations within the genome by gRNA molecules acting like molecular scissors; each piece gRNA contains a pre-designed sequence embedded within a longer RNA scaffold that binds DNA. Cas9 then cuts this target at that location.
Once Cas9 finds a target, it unwinds the DNA strand and compares it against its respective crRNA sequence. If there is a match, Cas9 cuts both strands at that location before disposing or replacing with new DNA.
The process is fast, cheap and precise. Modifying the gRNA/Cas9 system to target specific genes or locations within the genome makes this an extremely powerful research tool that could eventually be used to treat diseases that involve genetic components, like cancer or hepatitis B.
CRISPR-Cas9 is an invaluable tool for targeting DNA, yet its limitations must be carefully considered. Cas9 must first bind with and recognize an array of 3-5 nucleotides known as protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) sequences before it can cut the genome cleave it away. PAM sequences vary between bacterial species based on shape and electrostatics to enable accurate targeting.
NSF-supported researchers have developed ways to overcome these constraints. For instance, Jennifer Doudna led a team which successfully modified CRISPR-Cas9 so as to require only one RNA molecule rather than two in natural systems – increasing both speed and precision of editing by CRISPR-Cas9. This has proven an ideal tool for genomic research as well as therapeutic use in somatic cells.
Regulation
Biohackers often believe that new gene-editing techniques should not be limited to scientific labs and feel that current regulations are too limiting. Furthermore, they place great value in bodily autonomy and see body modification experiments as a form of self-expression; biohackers are willing to undertake risky self-experiments online as a form of expression and may livestream their experiences online.
One such biohacker was Josiah Zayner from the US, who performed in February 2016 an experimental full-body microbiome transplant and CRISPR gene edit on himself to remove myostatin (which causes animals to build big muscles), via livestream. Zayner believes it’s essential for society at large to participate in science; universities and companies are too restrictive.
Biohackers have experimented with engineered yeast that produces fluorescent green protein as a fun way of learning molecular biology, but these kits only work on prokaryotic bacteria and yeast; humans do not belong in this category of organisms. It remains uncertain whether DIY kits for altering human DNA would be safe and viable to use; should such kits become possible, what would be their regulatory response and would biohackers be tempted to violate any laws against doing this activity?
Risks
Many biohackers express concern that traditional scientific institutions have become too coddled and risk-averse, slowing the advancement of new technologies. Furthermore, they believe their work is often unfairly scrutinized or censored; biohackers view themselves as responsible stewards of both their own health as well as that of others’, willing to experiment with alternatives to expensive regulated drugs while using genome editing for expressive purposes – their motivation stemming from bodily autonomy, self-care, and social activism.
DIY kits for gene editing have generated significant public concern that individuals may use these tools without proper training or understanding of their potential dangers. One such DIY gene-editing kit by Josiah Zayner claims he is democratizing lifesaving technology, hoping to treat cancer and blindness through genetic experiments, while critics point out they could have serious unforeseen repercussions; others point out his cavalier approach is dangerous.
Zayner’s experiments put both people and ecosystems at risk of harm; for example, an untrained person injecting CRISPR DNA into mosquitoes released into the wild could create massive ecological devastation – something even co-discoverer of CRISPR Jennifer Doudna warned about.
Biohackers often conduct experiments aimed at increasing memory and concentration through nootropic consumption, with these chemicals purporting to have beneficial effects on brain functioning but without evidence supporting this claim. Other experiments conducted by biohackers involve body modification to enhance appearance or abilities; such as implanting magnets, radio-frequency identification chips or electronic devices that enable more seamless interaction with technology – ushering in an age of the cyborg!
Biohacking is an intricate field, necessitating comprehensive regulatory oversight. In the US, most biohacking products and activities fall under FDA jurisdiction; internationally however, a global governance framework needs to exist that oversees informal genomic editing practices as well as innovation externalities and clinical research standards; this could be accomplished via international alliances like Global Alliance for Genomic Health (GA4GH) or Bermuda Principles.
